Social Integration, Religion And Media Influences Essay

In the 2011 census, 356,000 Muslims lived in the North-West accounting for only 5.1% of the population (ONS, 2011). There are an increasing number of female women converting to Islam with as many as 30,000 converting in recent years (Harris, 2010). The research focuses on views of veiling in regards to social integration, religion and media influences. There are a number of negative labels attached to Islam throughout the world (Shirazi, 2010) and this negativity has resulted in religious discrimination against vast numbers of the Muslim population based on their religious identity (Ameli, 2006). This will be investigated through: â€Å"An exploration of attitudes of a sample of non-Muslim men and women in the North West, towards Muslim women wearing hijab and/or niqab.† The controversy of the veil is a relevant and an ongoing worldwide debate steming from incidents such as the Oldham race riots in 2001, to the burkini row in France (2016) as well as the Bulgarian government passing legislation to ban the veil (BBC, 2016). We live in an increasingly multicultural society it is important that we try and find out why certain prejudices occur from different sets of people. Mason (as cited in Roberts and Coppins, 2008) likens research to a puzzle and my research fits with both the causal and comparative style. â€Å"Causal puzzles ask what influence x has on y or what causes x or y?...Comparative puzzles ask what can be learnt from comparing x and y?† (Roberts and Coppins, 2008, 88).Show MoreRelatedSociology as a Perspective 1332 Words   |  6 Pageslink between social structures, forces and agents. It enables people to understand that all social structures influence each other; therefore no social structure is independent and remains uninfluenced by the condition of other social institutes. For example the economic state of South Africa is affected by political decisions made by the government and members of the parliament. 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10 Christmas Movies that Wont Turn You into a Grinch or...

10 Christmas Movies that Wont Turn you Into a Grinch or Scrooge Hundreds of Christmas movies have been made since the invention of motion pictures and are still being made to this day. There are only a few that are considered â€Å"Classics†. What I consider classics are the movies that families pull out every year to watch during the Christmas season. If you prefer more recently made movies, there are many great movies that made it onto my list from the 90s and 2000s. These are some of my favorite holiday movies that I watched every year since I could understand the English language and that I still thoroughly enjoy today. #10 A Christmas Carol (2009)- This Disney animated movie is the newest version of the 1938 movie, A Christmas Carol. The famous actor, Jim Carrey, voices Ebenezer Scrooge. Disney did a perfect job of following the original storyline with Scrooge, the three ghosts, and all the other actors. This very exciting film is also very popular in 3D. Because this film is directed by Robert Zemeckis, it is a fantastic remake of an old, loved, holiday classic, yet some people still prefer the 1984 version. #9 A Christmas Carol (1984)- This Christmas movie is a version of Charles Dickenss famous 1800s play and book, A Christmas Carol. This movie is one of the most accurate movies based on the play and book, and never gets boring, because it of the action with all the ghosts. Because of this, I consider this movie to be the original version although I know it

Oedipus Psychological and Political- MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theOedipusfor Psychological and Political. Answer: Introduction Oedipus the King reveals as a psychological, political and a mystery story. From the beginning to the end of this great mythic story of patricide andcriminal congress,playwrightgives special importance to the person who was determined to expose, trade down and penalise an assassin. In the opening of the play, the Thebess voters humbly ask their king to raise the plague which was frightening them to destroy town. But the king had already sent Creon to Oracle in order to find out what is actually needed to be done. On hiscome back,mythical beingannounced that he has received the instruction from the oracle to search out Lauiss felon, the king of Thebes before Oedipus.The inventionandpenalizationof thefelon canfinishthe plague. At once,mythical beingsetson the point ofsolving the murder. As per the order of the king, Tiresias (the blind prophet)initiallyrefusesto talk,howeverfinally claim that he himself killed Lauis.Mythical beingangrily rejected the prophet and order him to leave. mocks and rejects the prophet angrily, ordering himto go away,however not aheadmythical being suggestsin darknessofincestuousweddingand away forward for ill fame, and itinerant. Oedipustriesin realisingrecommendationfromJocasta (the queen). she tells the king to ignore the him prophecies and explains him that once a prophet told her that her husband will die at their sons hands. She also told the king that the prophet was wrong as the baby died whereas his husband was killed by a bunch of crossroads. Oedipus gets disturbed by the remarks of the queen as while he was coming to the Thebes, he killed a person who was having a similar appearance as that of Laius. In order to find the reality, the king asks for the sole living viewer (a shepherd) for the murder. There was another worry that was haunting the king. He once got to know from an oracle that he was doomed for killing his father so as to get married to his mother. This fear bring him ultimately to the Thebes. Here, the queen again advised him to not to care regarding prophecies. In some time, the king gets to know that his father (Polybus) died because of old age. So in light of this, the queen again advises the king to stop caring about the prophecies. But the king was still worrying about the prophecy of marriage to his mother (Merope). Listening in, themessenger told the king that he get to know that Polybus and Merope were not the real parents of the king. In reality, a messenger gave the king to a royal couple when he was offered a deserted baby from Laiuss house. Now after hearing this, the king was very determined to meet the shepherd and also wasnts to know the truth behind his birth. But the queen requested him to stop all this and runs towards the palace with grief. King was pretty confident that the worst news for him will be his birth in lower class family. He was very eagerly waiting for the shepherd. Initially, the shepherd was not uttering anything but when he was scared to be killed, he tells the whole truth to the king. He told that the king was actually Laius and Jocastas son. Hence, despite of all the precautions followed by the king, he killed his own father and married his mother. All the sayings of the prophecies comes to be true. Oedipus then rushed into the palace and finds that the queen has committed suicide. He got very tortured and takes out the pins from the gown of the queen and hit the pins into his eyes so that he can no longer be able to see the misery that has caused by him. He then requests the Creon to kill him. But as the conclusion of the play, the king humbly awaits for the oracle so that the oracle will determine whether the king will stay in the Thebes or not. Historical Background The Athens was a tiny place. Its full name was Athens Sophocles. It was one of the independent states of the Greek cape. It held its position in all the democracy lives and the philosophy. Plato and Aristotle we taught in the Athens. They were the ones who gave birth to the western philosophy. In the fifth century, Athens was considered as the richest city of the Greek cape. The Athens army and navy altogether defeated the Aegean and the Persians and were awarded as the tribute money. Athens usually show some public arts, entertainments and celebrate the most notably festivals. By the middle of the fifth century, Athens was reached at the top of the chart but still most of the Athenians were unsafe as most of their land was dry and unfertile. They were having very less amount of food so they started fought with the neighbouring cities for the farmland and the food. Athens army and navy help the people in defeating all the cities. They arrange to solve their problems by conquering various cities and sought all the fertile land. But the rival city Sparta came to dominate the Athens in 431B.C. Athens gets defeated by the Sparta and lose all its power and royalty. The Oedipus Myth Just like various dramatists of the time of Sophocles, he also wrote a play as the theatrical representations of the myths of great Greek Culture. Greek culture is held in most of the national historic myths. Sophocles and his subordinates celebrate all the myths of the greek history into their plays of Trojan wars. The traditional story ofOedipus the kingthatconjointlyseemsconciselyin Homer shows the story of a persons great attempt to change the fate. This tragedy is based on the very painful and sad story of Oedipus in finding his own real identity. At the oracle, Oedipuss parents were warned by the Prophet that their own son will kill his father and will get married to his mother, the parents gave the child to a shepherd and tell him to leave the child in the dark mountains to let him die. But the pity shepherd took the child to the Corinth and gave him to the childless king and queen. They adopted the child without knowing any of his identity and named him Oedipus. Oedipus was grown up as the prince of the Corinth. But he was always told that Corinth King is not his real father, so he went to a prophet to know about the truth but the prophet tell the prince about the destiny regarding the murder of the father and get marrying with the mother. So as to avoid this destiny the king ran away from the Corinth and reached Thebes. Before entering Thebes, the king stayed near Thebes for sometime. There an old man insults him so Oedipus in anger killed the old man. That old man was Oedipuss father but he did not realize that. After that, The Oedipus met with the monstrous Sphinx, who was terrifying the Thebes from a long time. The Oedipus answered the question asked by the monster correctly and killed him. The people of the Thebes consider Oedipus as a hero and after getting the news of Laius being killed by the crossroads, they accept Oedipus as the king of the Thebes. As the king, Oedipus married Jocasta and they have four children. Despite of all the precautions the painful prophecy fulfilled. Dramatic Irony Since everyone knows that the plays of the Sophocles do not have any surprising factor but he arranged to hold the interest of the people in his plays by providing a dramatic irony as well as by the ways of interpretation of the plays. Dramatic irony refers to what Audience actually knows and think about the story but the story ends up in another end. Like in this play, the audience know that the play is regarding the Oedipus killing is father and marrying his mother. But in the end the play concluded with Oedipus finding the truth regarding his own identity. By watching this great play the audience get to know that the Oedipus was a great hero and take all the precautions so as to get away from the fate, but results in fulfilling the fate. It conveys that the destiny is permanent and cant be changed at any cost. Further this play of the Oedipus rex stands as the best dramatic play regarding the Greek myths as it is the greatest tragedy that has ever been written. Character List Oedipus:- He was the king of Thebes. In very young age, he saved the city Thebes by killing the monster who was terrifying the people of Thebes. He currently acts in the play as finding the man who killed the previous King of the Thebes. Creon:- He is brother in law of the King Oedipus. He is the most trustworthy advisor for the king and he travelled to the oracle so as to find the murdered of the King Laius. Tiresias:- He is a blind prophet who always helps and guides the king. Jocasta:- She is the queen of Thebes. She is the wife of the King Oedipus and widower of the earlier king of Thebes. He has to marry to marry the king in order to save the town Thebes from the monster Sphinx. Atraveller:-He is the person who came from the palace and gave the knews of queen being dead and King being becoming blind to the people of the Thebes. A Shepherd:- He is a herder who lived in the near mountains and was once served in King Laiuss house. AMessenger from Corinth:He is the person who brings the Oedipus to the Corinths King and queen from the Thebess king. Antigone and Ismenn:- They were the young daughters of the King Oedipus. Summary In the opening of the play, the people of the Thebes request the Oedipus to find the murderer of the King Laius. Oedipus shows the mercy to the people and sends his brother in law to the oracle to find what they. As earlier, the monster was killed by the Oedipus so they came very early to him so as to get rid of the problem as soon as possible. Oedipus thinks that the plague of the Thebes can be finished if the killer of the former king will be found. He took various small actions to find the murderer and results in finding his own real identity. Conclusion The initial scene of the tragedy presents the King Oedipus as the King of the Thebes. The audience sitting in the theatre already knows the myth that the King Oedipus will conclude in killing his own father and will marry his mother. But the characters that are present onstage do not have any plan to dramatize this scene. This scene represents the tragedy and also indicates the direction to the audience in which the play will run. But as we know, the plays written by the Sophocles always have a dramatic irony. In the same way this play end up in a completely different reality. The King Oedipus, was born up and groomed in Corinth. He once was told by a prophet that he will kill his father and marry his mother. So as to change this destiny, Oedipus ran from the Corinth and reached Thebes. There he killed the King Laius of the Thebes unknowingly and became the hero of the people of the Thebes by killing the monster Sphinx. He then became the king of the Thebes and as per the request of the people of Thebes, he started finding the person who kills the former king of the Thebes and results in finding his own real identity. References Beer J, Oedipus Tyrannus Brill's Companion to Sophocles 93 Ahrensdorf PJ, Introduction Greek Tragedy and Political Philosophy 1 Ahrensdorf PJ, Greek Tragedy and Political Philosophy Approaching Greek Drama [2008] A Guide to Ancient Greek Drama 230 Aristotelian Texts Used Tragic Pleasures Chronology Of Greek Drama Greek Drama And Dramatists Dreams; Interpretation of dreams Brills New Pauly Furtwangler A and Strong E, Masterpieces Of Greek Sculpture Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture Introduction [2009] How to Read World Literature 1 Oedipus the King Oedipus the King Tragedy and Greek Religion Greek Tragedy 60 V. Oedipus Tyrannus [2011] The Past in Aeschylus and Sophocles Bibliography Brunner, M. "King Oedipus Retried" Rosenberger Krausz, London, 2001 Foster, C. Thomas. "How to Read Literature Like a Professor" HarperCollins, New York, 2003 Oedipus Rex- Annotated text and analysis Oedipus the KingBook Notesfrom Literapedia Oedipus the KingfromProject Gutenberg

High Self-Esteem Results to High Job Performance Essay Example

High Self-Esteem Results to High Job Performance Essay Importance of the Topic Self-esteem reflects an individual’s overall appraisal of his or her own worth, which has a large influence on an individual’s behavior. Accurate prediction on job performance is critical to people in managerial positions, such as managers. Based on the theory of behavioral plasticity and self-monitoring, it is indicated that subordinates’ organization-based self-esteem, which reflects an employee’s self-perceived value as an organization member, moderates two important subordinate outcomes, namely task performance and innovative behavior (Rank, Nelson, Allen Xu,2009). Therefore, the question whether self-esteem is an useful indicator of an individual’s job performance is worth further discussion and research. In order to examine the relationship, self-esteem and job performance will be discussed systematically in this article and a hypothesis is made as below: Two Variables Hypothesis Hypothesis: Self-esteem is positively related to job performance (High self-esteem results to high job performance) Definition of Variables Tharenou defined self-esteem as â€Å"the evaluation which an individual make and customarily maintains with regard to the self. It expresses an attitude of approval or disapproval, and indicates the extent to which the individual believes the self to be capable, significant, successful and worthy† (Tharenou, 1979). In general, self-esteem can be categorized as implicit self-esteem and explicit self-esteem (Grumm, Nestler Collani, 2009). Implicit self-esteem is positively related to the magnitude of the evaluative conditioning effect, while explicit self-esteem shows no significant relationship with the evaluative conditioning effect (Zhang Chan, 2009). We will write a custom essay sample on High Self-Esteem Results to High Job Performance specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on High Self-Esteem Results to High Job Performance specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on High Self-Esteem Results to High Job Performance specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Additionally, self-esteem can also be recognized as high self-esteem and low self-esteem (Mruk, 1999). People with high self-esteem react positively active to unexpected challenges while people with low self-esteem under-evaluate their abilities and under-perform in activities. Self-efficacy is easily mistaken for self-esteem, and there are some similarities and differences between these two concepts. According to Natalie Branden, self-esteem relates to a person’s sense of self-worth, which is defined as â€Å"the disposition to experience oneself as being ompetent to cope with the basic challenges of life† (Branden, 1994). In contrast, self-efficacy is known as people’s beliefs about their ability to achieve a goal or perform necessary behaviors under prospective situations (Whyte, Saks Hook, 1986-1998). The similarities between self-esteem and self-efficacy are that they are both self-originated, and act as the essential driving force for one to achieve his or her goals. In addition, they both help to motivate an individual to stay positive. However, both can be detrimental and counter-productive. The difference among the two concepts is that self-esteem is a feeling of self-worth, whereas self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capacity to handle tasks. In other words, they differ in the sense that self-esteem is more subjective, whereas self-efficacy is more objective. (Banndura, 1994) Job performance is the other variable in the hypothesis. Job performance is depicted by the quantity and quality expectation of employees, and which in turn form the basis for performance reviews (BusinessDictionary. com). It can be categorized as an individual’s obligatory behavior and contextual behavior. More specifically, obligatory behaviors are behaviors required by a job while contextual behaviors are voluntary behaviors beyond the requirement of the job (Borman Motowidlo, 1993). Job performance is occasionally mistaken for job outcomes. Performance is presented as a bundle of behavior (Campbell, 1990), while outcomes can be numerical, which measures effectualness of the performance or behavior. The similarities between performance and outcome are that both of them are subsequent to some antecedents and they are recognized as an end or beginning. Moreover, they both are used as benchmarks for bonus or incentives. Evidence on Hypothesis As mentioned earlier, the proposed hypothesis is that self-esteem is positively related to job performance. Certain amounts of empirical studies have been done to prove the validity on the proposed relationship. In study conducted by Elite Hutman, the goal is to test the hypothesis of positive correlation between self-esteem and job performance within the context of the principles of psychometric meta-analysis. The database used in the analysis consisted of published articles from electronic sources such as INFO, Business Index and Academic Index. The meta-analysis included 49 studies, with the dependent variable being job performance, which encompassed aspects of the subjective and objective attributes of job performance. The explanatory variables were measures of self-esteem, one of which was organizational based self-esteem, which was narrowly defined, and appeared to have a strong correlation with job performance. Specifically, this variable had a correlation coefficient of 0. 37 with job performance, indicating a relatively strong relationship. Another variable, namely task specific self-esteem, had a correlation coefficient of 0. 3 with job performance, which indicated a very strong relationship. The results support the hypothesis that self-esteem and job performance are positively correlated in most situations. However, the study cautioned that lab studies produced inflated correlations, and that the true mean lay in the actual field, in an uncontrolled setting. The paper further made suggestions that each organization should tailor the intervention plans to the specific job, which would maximize self-esteem and consequently enhance the level of job performance. With respect to organizational based self-esteem, the study suggested organizations to adopt Schwalbe’s (1985) suggestion to incorporate the concept of autonomy in the workplace to enhance self-esteem. This is supported by the before mentioned high correlation between organizational self-esteem and job performance (Hutman, 1999). On the other hand, the counter hypothesis should be â€Å"Self-esteem is negatively moderating or not related to job performance†. There are also few empirical studies have been done to prove the counter correlation between the two variables. In the study conducted by Baumeister and Heatherton, 35 undergraduate students were divided into two groups based on their self-esteem levels. Specifically, they were divided into high self-esteem group (HSE) and low self-esteem group (LSE). During the test, they were asked to play a video game by setting goals and trying to achieve those goals. Monetary incentive would be given as a reward based on their performance level. Half of the participants were put into an ego-threat condition and they then made unrealistic goals. Results indicated that HSE group won significantly less money than LSE group under the ego-threat condition. In addition, more than 87. 5% of the HSE people failed to attain their goal under ego-threat condition, whereas only 12. 5% from the LSE failed. This is due the poor self-management of HSE people under ego-threat condition (Baumeister Heatherton, 1993). Both of the studies focused on a direct relationship between self-esteem and performance. However, due to the different assumptions and methods used to examine the relationship, inconsistency of the research results occurred. Relevance of Variables There are two features of high self-esteem that benefits performance, one is enhanced initiative and the other is pleasant feelings (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger Vohs, 2003). People who exhibit enhanced initiative though may not necessarily be good leaders, those who exhibit low self-esteem are shown to be less likely to become good leaders. In addition, it was found that people with high self-esteem were more likely to take initiatives, which further supports the leadership argument. It is found that high performing leadership helps to 1. etter align employees with the company’s goal, 2. build and strengthen the team, 3. allocate tasks effectively and efficiently, 4. develop potential employees and foster growth, and 5. motivate. These five elements all lead to better job performance. Therefore, high self-esteem enables people to take initiatives and improve leadership, which ultimately leads to overall improves job performance (www. exploreHR. org). People who are happy in work settings are generally having more positive experiences than negative ones in connection with the work place and their job. It is shown that people who are happy in work environment tend to have a clear direction, finds that direction motivating, focus on priorities, more likely to engage in their work, have more positive experiences than negative experiences at work, are optimistic looking into the future, and are able to achieve agreed upon results (â€Å"Putting Performance and Happiness Together in the Workplace†, Charles D. Kerns). Accordingly, people who are happy tend to increase their productivity, which ultimately leads to improved job performance. On the contrary, many researchers have supported the idea that self-esteem is negatively related or not related to job performance. First of all, â€Å"correlation does not imply causation† (Irish Times, 2005) Even if the correlation between the two variables is proven to be strong, it does not necessary imply the cause-effect relationship as the proposed hypothesis. Otherwise stated, the cause-effect relationship could be reversed as â€Å"high job performance leads to higher self-esteem†. Additionally, people with igher self-esteem seem to be more prejudiced (Irish Times, 2005). For example, a person who is more prejudiced may have negative opinions towards their boss easily, which may in turn result in unsatisfactory job performance. Cause of Inconsistency As discussed earlier, different empirical sources have showed different results, which are mainly due to two reasons. Firstly, both of Hutman’ and Baumeister’s studies focus on a direct relationship b etween self-esteem and performance. However, the manipulated condition and research method under each study is different. Hutman conducts the study based on the context of the principles of psychometric meta-analysis, and four moderators are defined so as to test the positive correlation. On the other hand, Baumeister conducts the study under the ego-threat condition, which reinforces and limits performance of the participants. Therefore, due to the different assumptions and methods they use to examine the relationship, inconsistency of the research results occurs. Secondly, as mentioned above, the conditions and methods are different among different researches. Consequently, research results may not be applied to a wider group than those who took part in those studies. In other words, there may not be consistent results under different methods or researchers. In order to resolve the inconsistency, future research should be conducted under different targeted group or different methods by different researchers. Validity of Evidence In terms of definition, according to Hutman, performance is defined as job performance, which is â€Å"the effectiveness and value of work behavior and its outcomes†(Hutman, 1999). However, performance is measured in terms of goal achievements, which are not directly related to the actual job performance. Consequently, the definition in Hutman’s study is more suitable for the proposed hypothesis. Baumeister’s experiment was conducted in 1993, which was 6 years prior to the first one and is 17 years past from the present time. Hutman’s study is more reliable since the information used is more recent, which may not be available 6 years ago. In Hutman’s study, 49 studies are tested while only 35 people participated in B’s experiment. Regarding the sample size, Baumeister’s experiment is not as reliable as Hutman’s, since large sample size can reduce unsystematic errors of the experiment and unnecessary volatility of information from test subjects. To sum up, although both studies are creditable, Hutman’s study is of higher degree of validity for the proposed hypothesis which is mentioned at the beginning of this paper. Practical Implications Although different researchers share different opinions about the relation between self-esteem and job performance, managers can still delicately make use of self-esteem in order to improve subordinates’ job performance. As shown by the result of Hutman’s study, self-esteem is positively related to job performance. As a result, managers should enhance subordinates’ self-esteem in order to improve performance. For instance, after a subordinate finishes an assignment, the manager should comment on his or her excellent performance by recognizing the high degree of difficulty of the assignment. If done properly, the subordinate will be motivated to excel next time. However, according to the ego-threat condition introduced by Baumeister, unrealistic goals will decrease the subordinate’s performance. Research Implications In order to better examine the reason why self-esteem is related to performance, a new study should be considered by researchers. A new variable, job satisfaction, may be considered in the study to explain the relationship between the two variables. Job satisfaction is proven to influence job performance positively. People with higher job satisfaction are more dedicated to the organization, which leads to better job performance (Zhang Zheng, 2009). However, it is unknown whether self-esteem and job satisfaction is related. Is self-esteem an effective indicator of an individual’s job satisfaction, which then in turn affects the individual’s job performance? Does job satisfaction act as a moderator between self-esteem and job performance? Researchers are able to further examine and determine the relation between self-esteem and job performance by taking job satisfaction into account. Proposed Study In order to examine the relationship between self-esteem and job satisfaction, a sample of 500 people (250 in HSE, 250 in LSE) should be chosen from the same industry but different regions. The reason given is that participants who are in the same industry will be later assigned with industrial tasks. The intention of this experiment is to evaluate how job satisfaction is affected by people with HSE (high self-esteem) and LSE (low self-esteem). According to their self-esteem level, participants will be equally divided into groups of 50s (50 in HSE, 50 in LSE). Meanwhile, five levels of tasks are designed to influence an individual’s level of job satisfaction. Each group is assigned to one of the five tasks, and the tasks are to be done individually. In order to determine each participant’s job satisfaction level, surveys will be conducted after each task is done. After analyzing the level of job satisfaction between HSE and LSE groups under each task level, correlation between self-esteem and job satisfaction are then formulated. Conclusion After the discussion shown above, the relationship between self-esteem and job performance remains ambiguous. Further studies should be conducted and examined regarding the relationship, so that managers will be able to predict subordinates’ performance according to an individual’s self-esteem level. Abstract This article focuses on the relationship between self-esteem, the evaluation which an individual make and customarily maintains with regard to the self, and job performance, quantity and quality expectations of employees. The hypothesis is that self-esteem is positively related to job performance, which is supported by the study conducted by E. On the other hand, the counter-hypothesis is that self-esteem is not related or negatively related to job performance. The counter-hypothesis is also supported by another study, in which poor performance of the HSE people is shown under an ego-threat condition. In future research, additional variables, such as job satisfaction, should be considered to further examine the relationship. In practical implications, managers are able to delicately make use of self-esteem in order to improve subordinates’ job performance. In conclusion, this article contains limitations. Some evidence was shown approximately 10 years ago, which challenged its validity. Moreover, due to the different assumptions and methods being used, inconsistency of the research results follows.

Multiple Essays - Psychiatric Diagnosis, Abnormal Psychology

Multiple Personality Disorders Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD) or Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) was first recognized in the 1700's but was not understood so therefore it was forgotten. Many cases show up in medical records through the years, but in 1905, Dr. Morton Prince wrote a book about MPD that is a foundation for the disorder. A few years after it was published Sigmund Freud dismissed the disorder and this dropped it from being discussed at any credible mental health meetings. Since then the disorder has been overlooked and misdiagnosed as either schizophrenia or psychosis. Many in the medical profession did not believe that a person could unknowingly have more than one personality or person inside one body, even after the in the 1950's Three Faces of Eve was published by two psychiatrist. In 1993, records showed that three to five thousand patients were being treated for MPD compared to the hundred cases reported ten years earlier. There is still as increase in the number of cases being reported as the scientific community learns more and more about the disease and the public is becoming more and more aware of this mental disorder. There are still many questions left unanswered about the disease, like "Is it genetic?" or "Is a certain type of personality more vulnerable to the disorder?" but many aspects of how people come by the disorder are already answered (Clark, 1993, p.17-19) MPD is commonly found in adults who were recurrently abused mentally, physically, emotionally, and/or sexually as young children, between birth to 8 years of age. The child uses a process called dissociation to remove him/herself from the abusive situation. Dissociation is when a child makes up an imaginary personality to take control of the mind and body while the child is being abused. The child can imagine many personalities but usually there is a personality for every feeling and or emotion that was involved during the abuse (BoyyM, 1998, p.1). As an adult, the abused child finds it hard to keep track of time and may have episodes of amnesia. Other symptoms that will appear in adults with MPD are depression, auditory and visual hallucinations (hearing voices) and suicidal thoughts. Another major symptom is when the adult has no recollection of their childhood. The adult with MPD has no idea they were abused as children and also unaware of the other personalities living inside of their head (Multiple Personality Disorder-fact sheet, 1996-99, p.1). Multiple Personality Disorder is when there is "the presence of two or more distinct identities or personalities, each with its own relatively enduring pattern of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and self"(BoyyM, 1998, p.1). There can be anywhere from two to over a hundred different personalities. Usually each personality will fall into one of the following categories: core, host, protectors, internal self-helper, fragments, child members, preteen, teenager, adults, artistic/music, cross-gender, cross-colored, animal members, inanimate members (BoyyM, 1998, p. 2-3). The host personality is the person who is the multiple, this is the original personality, or the one that created the other personalities, but is unaware of them. The most common apparent identities are the child, persecutor, rescuer, and helper. The child is the identity that is under the age of twelve. They behave as children often sucking thumbs, twisting hair, like to eat cookies, throw tantrums, and use child-like vocabulary. The Persecutor identity is the self-destructive identity that is violent and angry. Persecutor identities usually have a drug/alcohol problem and generally put the host at risk. The rescuer personality is usually devoid of emotion but logical, able, proficient, and responsible. The helper personality knows the most about the history of the multiple; they generally want to help everyone for the general good. The helper personality is the personality that is most helpful in therapy because they usually know about all the other identities (Clark, 1993, p.80-83). Subpersonalities are not only part of a person with MPD but they are also evident in emotionally normal persons as well. Although, in a normal person, he/she remembers when their subpersonality takes over, but in a MPD patient, the personality disconnects from the host that the host can not remember what happens. When a traumatic experience happens, whether positive or negative, a subpersonality will develop. In a normal person, the splitting is broken into an "ok self" and a "not ok self". In a multiple, the personalities are more defined; they are broken into smaller fragments that disassociate from the human host (Rowan, 1990, p. 7, 20). In the book by Terri A. Clark, M.D., it shows the

The Insanity Defense in Criminal Cases

The Insanity Defense in Criminal Cases The standard for claiming a defendant is not guilty by reason of insanity has changed through the years from strict guidelines to a more lenient interpretation, and back to a more strict standard again. Although definitions of legal insanity differ from state to state, generally a person is considered insane and is not responsible for criminal conduct if, at the time of the offense, as a result of a severe mental disease or defect, he was unable to appreciate the nature and quality or the wrongfulness of his acts. This reasoning is, because willfull intent is an essential part of most offenses, a person who is insane is not capable of forming such intent. Mental disease or defect does not alone constitute a legal insanity defense. The defendant has the burden of proving the defense of insanity by clear and convincing evidence. The history of the insanity defense in modern times comes from the 1843 case of Daniel MNaghten, who tried to assassinate the prime minister of Britain and was found not guilty because he was insane at the time. The public outrage after his acquittal prompted the creation of a strict definition of legal insanity which is known as the MNaghten Rule. The MNaghten Rule basically said a person was not legally insane unless he is incapable of appreciating his surroundings because of a powerful mental delusion. The Durham Standard The Durham standard was a much more lenient guideline for the insanity defense, but it addressed the issue of convicting mentally ill defendants, which was allowed under the MNaghten Rule. However, the Durham standard drew much criticism because of its expansive definition of legal insanity. The Model Penal Code, published by the American Law Institute, provided a standard for legal insanity that was a compromise between the strict MNaghten Rule and the lenient Durham ruling. Under the MPC standard, a defendant is not responsible for criminal conduct if at the time of such conduct as a result of mental disease or defect he lacks substantial capacity either to appreciate the criminality of his conduct or to conform his conduct to the requirements of the law. The MPC Standard The MPC standard was popular until 1981, when John Hinckley was found not guilty by reason of insanity under those guidelines for the attempted assassination of President Ronald Reagan. Again, public outrage at Hinckleys acquittal caused lawmakers to pass legislation that reverted back to the strict MNaghten standard, and some states attempted to abolish the insanity defense altogether. Today the standard for proving legal insanity varies widely from state to state, but most jurisdictions have returned to a more strict interpretation of the definition.

300 (2006) Movie Critical Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

300 (2006) Movie Critical Review - Essay Example For ten days, Leonidas and his valiant men fight against the Persians. The Greek Ephialtes, however, defects to Xerxes and reveals a separate path through Thermopylae, which the Persians used to defeat the Greeks. Queen Gorgo (Lena Headey) successful persuades the Council to send reinforcement to Leonidas, but it is too late. Leonidas and all his men perished. Nevertheless, the battle continues, since Dilios leads a larger Greek army against the Persian army and launches the Battle of Plataea. The film has not precisely depicted some of the causes of the Battle, beliefs and attitudes, technology, dress, events, characters and speech of the time, as it turned a historical fact into a romantic myth that emphasizes the inaccurate dichotomy between the â€Å"evil† Asians and the â€Å"good† white race. The film did not accurately depict the causes of the Battle at Thermopylae and severely dichotomized historical characters, although the Battle itself is not fictitious. The Battle of Themopylae truly occurred, which Herodotus and other ancient writers described. The film shows that Leonidas fought for freedom and independence of not only Sparta, but the whole of Greece, though this is a simplistic reason for his motivation, according to Eugene N. Borza, professor emeritus of ancient history at Pennsylvania State University. It was still unclear why the Persians charged to Thermopylae, so it is hard to answer why the Greeks prepared to go to war with the former at Thermopylae. The film also no longer explores the â€Å"complex issues faced by the Greek city-states confronting the Persian advance† (Borza). Nevertheless, the Spartans did courageously stand against the Persians and all of them died there, except those who defected to the Persians and deserted the Spartan army. Their last stand, as a result, has been subjected to numerous various interpretations, to which the film â€Å"300† also belongs. Furthermore, the film has depicted a r ather stereotyped dichotomy between Asians and whites. The Asians, specifically Xerxes (Rodrigo Santoro), are illustrated as the â€Å"embodiment of evil and mindless tyranny, as opposed to the Spartans who represent freedom and justice† (Borza). The black and white division between the Asians and the Greeks perpetuate Orientalism and not the real facts about the Persians as people and their leaders. The film does not capture the actual figures of the historical event, but it did highlight some factual military strategies. Leonidas did not have only 300 soldiers with him, because according to Herodotus, the â€Å"Father of History,† he also brought thousands other Greeks and slaves. Borza stresses that it is â€Å"ludicrous to suggest† that an experienced Spartan general like Leonidas would think that 300 men would suffice against tens or even hundreds of thousands of enemies. That thinking would border both hubris and stupidity. Borza asserts that the Spartan s tand at Thermopylae consisted of â€Å"a force of perhaps six to seven thousand Greeks.† Moreover, the location of Thermopylae was strategic, because â€Å"the Persians would be unable to take advantage of their massive preponderance in numbers; instead, they would have to face the Greeks in close-quarter, hand-to-hand combat† (Frye 39). Also, the casualties to the Asians were high, because the Greeks fought well and hard too (Borza). â€Å"300† specifically capitalizes on close-up and medium shots of the battle with spurting blood and flinging, cut-off body parts that would have happened in a real hand-to-hand battle. Thus, the location enhanced the strategy of the Greeks against the Persians, while Snyder ensures hardcore action battle scenes with graphic shots and

Cruel and Unusual Punishment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cruel and Unusual Punishment - Essay Example Despite widespread outcry on the cruelty associated with the death penalty, many countries around the globes still practice it and view it as a perfectly legal form of extreme punishment. Whether to uphold or abolish the death penalty has been a controversial subject in many societies, in the world. This is because of the divergent views that different people have based on phenomenon such as culture, political ideology and religion. The United Nations, for example, has in recent times adopted resolutions though non binding, advocating for the abolishment of executions giving emphasis on the sanctity of life. The European Union also outlaws the practice of capital punishment in its area of jurisdiction through the second article of the European Union Charter of Fundamental Rights. This has proved to be ineffective since countries like the Unites States, Indonesia, India and China, which hold a large part of the global population, still practice capital punishment (Mandery 45). Accordi ng to Amnesty International, two nations each year have abolished capital punishment in their criminal justice systems since 1976. Counties such as Germany, Australia and Spain strongly against the practice of capital punishment regardless of the crime committed. Capital punishment dates as far back as 8th Century B.C in Babylon, where twenty five different crimes were punishable by death. The Hittite code of the 14th Century B.C also embraced capital punishment. Most astonishing of them all was the draconian Athens code of the 7th Century B.C, which set out death as punishment for all crimes. In early civilizations, the death penalty got executed thorough drowning, firing squads, impalement, lynching, decapitation and crucifixion. In present day, capital punishment gets executed through the use of lethal injection, firing squads, lethal gas, hanging and electrocution (Radelet 46). The death penalty in the Unites States has been an issue of insurmountable concern for a long time. Th e precedence of capital punishment in Americas came as a result of British influence on the then colony. Though capital punishment had been occurring, the first recorded execution took place in Virginia in 1608. The early 20th Century marked the resurgence in the execution of the death penalty. The 1930s marked the decade with the largest number of executions in the history of America. In the 1950s, the public began to voice their opposition to capital punishment. This led to a drop in the number of executions. In the 1960s, the legality of capital punishment got challenged. Before 1960, the eighth, fifth and fourteen amendments were interpreted as having endorsed the death penalty. It was later suggested that the death penalty was unusual and cruel, and hence unconstitutional in accordance to the Eighth Amendment (Mandery 77). In 1985, the Supreme Court ruled that the 8th Amendment had an evolving standard of decency which marked progress of a society that was coming of age. This n ewly found decency no longer had room for the death penalty. As a result, the Supreme Court began refining the administration of the death penalty by ensuring that it was practiced with little or no pain inflicted. Whereas the 8th Amendment of the Constitution of the United States restrains the government from cruel and unusual punishments, the ambiguity of the term ‘cruel and unusual’ has over the years fuelled the controversy about the constitutionality of capital p

Interior architecture in context Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Interior architecture in context - Essay Example s a course assistant with reputed architects like Ludovico Quaroni and Carlo Aymonino, for a while after taking the Degree in Architecture from Polytechnic University in Milan, in 1959. While Rossi taught the subject at various universities, he was internationally famous professor to teach in Zurich, Spain and America................(Aldo Rossi...) However, The Herzog & Demeuron being a commercial firm started making achievements in the building feats, right from their inception, as they designed museums, schools, art centers, libraries and residences as well as stadiums. Their design achievements can be seen in their works of Goetz art gallery at Munich in Germany, Institute for Hospital Pharmaceuticals, at Basel, Switzerland, built in 1998, Technical School Library at Eberswalde in Germany, and the latest one as the M.H. de Young Memorial Museum, San Francisco, California (2005). Apart from the Walker Art Center Expansion, designed by them at Minneapolis during the year 2005, there are other famous centers accredited to this firm.....(Herzog...) Herzog& De Meuron impressed the architectural world right from their first building, Ricola Warehouse as they brought in this design, an element of surprise of the fellow architects, although both the architects were young and below the age of forty years at that time. As the building was given a formal restrain that resulted in a canonical form, they established their own logic in this design, although the Ricola warehouse was built with reduced dimensions. While the walls enclosed the space in neutral manner, the handling of materials like the laminated wood panels and other things was done very efficiently to give the walls a traditional pattern that included rhythm and proportion. As many other architects of the later twentieth century tried to bring in originality and proposed new ideas, Herzog&De Meurone did propose new goals that were very refreshing, while solving the problems related to the cornice. While

Portion Control for Weight Management

Portion Control for Weight Management Netan Bhardwaj Lifestyle, social status and frame of mind all depend on your health thus everybody wants a perfect physical appearance, which may vary based on gender and age, and the way people see it is by attaining an ideal weight. But every challenge comes with obstacles e.g. lack of knowledge, resources and many other factors, due to that fact obesity and weight management have become enormous problem amongst individuals of all ages. To a certain extent minor weight loss can alter ones path of life. Whether it’s living life to the fullest or being overweight holding you down. And everyone that is overweight or obese is always looking for the â€Å"easy way out† to lose weight by not doing any exercise and eating anything they please. So can weight reduction really occur without any medications, surgery, or even extensive exercise? To begin with, people who are obese tend to be uneducated about effects of obesity, nutrition, and portion control. Now knowing about the major risk that obesity brings is a major issue such as 29% of all deaths in Canada are because of obesity, where females are at a higher risk of dying than males, and learning about these risks can be an eye opener for some and life changer for others. Obesity causes or is closely linked with a large number of health conditions like heart disease, stroke, diabetes are just to name a few and as many as 11 types of cancer, including leukemia, colon, breast cancer [WHO. 2014]. Not just that but obesity also comes with social and emotional effects including discrimination, lower wages, lower Quality of life and people being effected by obesity are more likely susceptible to depression. The type of diet you eat can have a major impact on your weight i.e. eating a high energy/calorie dense meal (coffee and a doughnut) can cause overeating whereas eating multiple low energy/calorie meals (juice, a piece of toast, and scrambled eggs) can provide an provide array of healthy choices by incorporating more food consumption but less calorie intake and also it can help with optimum weight management. For instance [Rolls. 2014] compiled three systematic studies on various individuals and this is what was conducted. The first trial involved overweight men and overweight women, they were given isocaloric portions of either high or low dense food to be eaten daily into a reduced energy diet for two months and one year later the group that was given low energy dense soup saw a 50% more reduction then the other control group. The second trial only obese women were tested and they were split into two groups. One grope was counseled to portion control and eat more water rich foods (fruits, vegetables) and the other group was asked to eat limited portions (fats and everything else). After a year the group that was told to eat more water rich foods lost 23% more weight, had a reduction in hunger and felt greater gratification. In the final trial, participants from trial one and trial two were monitored for six months. It was found that individuals who eat a low energy diet lost more than 50% of weight and eat 300grams more than the high energy diet group. From these trial it can be concluded that for weight management to occur simply saying â€Å"eat less† is not the best approach to reducing the amount of intake. Therefore large portions of low energy dense foods can be used strategically to encourage their lower consumption and caloric intake. If people lowered the density of energy in their diet, they can eat pleasurable portions while managing as well as maintaining their body weight [Rolls. 2014]. Also through these trials it can be said that a variety of portion control methods can be applied, eating less high energy meals or eating more low energy foods, for exemplary portion management leading to a lower chance of weight gain. Obesity has become a significant problem, it causes more deaths the being underweight, across many regions of multiple countries. Obesity has become such a high risk factor that even minimal weight loss of 5 to 10% seems to be enough to provide a clinically significant health benefit and reduce the risk of death, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and many other [Lagerros. 2013]. But there are limitations to weight loss i.e. physical disabilities, the quality of produce at a supermarket, cultural acceptance (being fat or over weight considered good, shows how healthy you are), neighborhood accessibility (neighborhood around the world tend not to have any sidewalks thus making it difficult for individuals of all ages to be healthy) as well as neighborhood safety (Places where criminal activity is high, People are less likely to leave their residence) and other resources. All these aspects play a tremendous role in weight reduction and or weight management. A study done by [Amanda Reichards et al. 2014] about adults with physical disabilities with a BMI of >25%. So these individuals were randomized into two weight management approaches. One of these was My plate diet (consists of a meal with fruits, vegetables, protein and dairy all in one plate) and the other was Stoplight diet (foods are based on the light consisted in traffic lights such as vegetables/fruits are green, potatoes/ cheese are yellow and fat foods are red) supplemented with portion controlled meals for 6 months. There were 126 enrollees and of those 70% of them completed initial 6 months and 60% of the 70% completed a follow up phase. The Stoplight diet group reduced weight during initial 6 month and lost more weight during the follow up phase whereas the My plate diet group only lost weight during the initial 6 months from the studies done by Amanda Reichards and her colleagues it can be stated that by using portion control, barriers can be overcome for individuals that are overweight and have physical mobility impairments. Consumers are uncovered to many pieces of data such as the media, commercials and promotions. The comparison between two merchandises that are similar in prices or completely buying a product for the first time, â€Å"58% of the consumers said that they used product labels† [Wills et al2009].Furthermore, Canadians believe that labels are the most important way to get nutritional data. â€Å"This source is then shadowed by various forms of media, friends and family, electronic media channels and lastly family physicians or other professionals â€Å"[Willset al.2009]. It is notable that family physicians/medical professionals seem to play such a minimal role in general information. In the past, significant findings have been conducted by researchers to help modern scientist. Lexis, L (2004) conducted multiple studies where 38% of the people’s portions were controlled and the others weren’t. The research shows that 5% of the 38% examined saw a weight reduction from their baseline weight whereas the other control group saw a 5% weight gain from their base line. She also did a study on Elevated waist/hip on men and women this a body mass index (BMI) greater the 27. Being overweight comes at a cost and its â€Å"$656 higher annual medical care costs, and the IV results indicate that obesity raises annual medical costs by $2741 in 2005 dollars.† [Cawley J. 2012]. â€Å"More than 2 in 3 adults are considered to be overweight or obese. More than 0.33% adults are considered to be obese. More than 0.05 adults in North America are considered to have extreme obesity. About 0.33%of children and adolescents from ages 6 to 19 are considered to be overwe ight or obese. More than 16% of children and adolescents from the ages of 6 to 19 are considered to be obese† National Health and Nutrition (2010). â€Å"Obesity can occur one pound at a time. Just like obesity so does prevention. † [National Institutes of Health. 2013] these are just some facts about obesity that can be prevented by portion control. Solutions. Are there any? With so many problem and hardly any solutions. Here are a couple of solutions that can help with implicating portion control, first would be liquid meal replacement (shakes) can be a very useful technique there were small experiments designed to makes many of the studies on the effectiveness of meal replacements were tough to interpret as few were intended to regulate whether meal replacements are closely linked with greater weight reduction than a self-selected consumption of regular foods. They also found that there is a relationship between the intakes of meal replacements in exchange of regular meals in the framework of energy controlled diets and decline in body weight. The second method would be tax increasing and front back trafficking. Increasing the tax on unhealthy food could be a substantial answer to many problems, the Danish government has put a 25% tax on unhealthy foods (sweet based) such as ice cream chocolate and many others and beverages. T hey also banned the use of Trans-fatty acid (increases coronary heart cancer) leading companies to use a different method of production and provide a better fat quality product. There is also Front of Pack traffic light nutrition labeling (this is when the nutritional label is put in the front and the product is labelled as a colour that indicated the type of product which is stated earlier in this paper). There was a randomized-controlled study was conducted to determine different food label formats on consumers’ product choices, the study established that traffic light labels had the most influential on consumers, compared to other methods. Even with time constraint consumers the traffic light labels and logos were more effective and efficient rather than the ordinary label furthermore the likelihood of healthy choices had increased moreover with unlabeled food it is more difficult to classify as whether it’s healthy or unhealthy [Borgmeier and Westenhoefer, 2009]. By making such a major impact, neighboring countries are putting an emphasis on disease deduction methods as well. The third method is Pre-portioned foods it is an alternative approach to liquid meal plan it is a pre-packaged single meal /snack which is bound to reduce weight also temporary studies have found that solid meal substitutes (bars) caused the tendency to feel more full than isocaloric liquid meal substitutes (shakes) [ Tieken et al. 2007]. In an 18-month study conducted by [Wing et al. 1996] where contributors were allocated to one of the four groups: a usual behavioral treatment was given, a behavioral treatment accompanied with financial encouragement for weight reduction, food source, or a combination of food establishment and motivations. The food that was provided to the individuals consisted of pre-portioned conventional foods suitable for five breakfasts and five suppers each week for 18 months. The quantity of weight reduction in the two groups, provided with sufficient food, was significantly superior to the other groups at 6, 12 and 18 months [Wing et al. 1996]. Also in another study, patients were given either a prepackaged, nutritionally complete, organised meal, plan that provided almost all of their diet and the other group was given a macronutrient equivalent usual-care diet. The prepackaged meal was designed to sustain long-term weight loss. This was proven at 1 year when the first group lost 5.8 kilograms while the other group only lost 1.7 kilograms loss [Metz et al. 2000]. A certain study, sought to separate the properties of the portion-controlled diets from other mechanisms of the weight reduction intervention by keeping the additional variables similar across the two study groups. The pre-portioned food group was provided with three starters and one snack daily, which they could substitute with conventional foods by the rules of their program. After 6 months, the pre-portioned food group lost 7.3kg whereas the control group only lost [Foster et al. 2013]. The take away message from these studies is that Portioned food can cause a substantial difference between casual meals in terms of weight reduction thus allowing a greater consumption of food and loss in weight. Another solution is by regulating the advertisements that are shown to adolescents. This will cause children to be less attracted to food which can lead them to gain weight. In Sweden, Norway and Quebec the government has restricted television advertisements for children. More specifically , the Swedish Radio and Television act does not grant commercial television advertisement that is intended to attract or gain the attention of children who are under the age of 12. However, most countries tend not to revise advertisements, to make sure they are meant for children. A comparison of food advertising in 13 countries in different parts of the world, found that children who were watching more than 2 hours would be exposed to between 28 and 84 food advertisements per day [Lagerros. 2013]. Weight management/reduction has been a major problem for decades now. Obesity is something that is increasingly on the rise today and will continue to rise unless we do something about it, food is being pushed on television all the time. Corrupting minds to eat calorie dense food but there is a way to fix that by informing people of how bad it really is and encouraging people to live a health-enhancing lifestyle. The solution is as simple as eating a portioned diet and making it a lifelong diet. Some fat is essential for the body. It uses it for various implications such as heat, padding, insulation, and stored energy. Eating healthy and keeping active is all a part of a lifelong daily routine No diet should be promoted as being a temporary eating plan, but rather a permanent plan for healthy eating and living. References Borgmeier I., Westenhoefer J. (2009)Impact of different food label formats on healthiness evaluation and food choice of consumers: a randomized-controlled study.BMC Public Health9: 184. Cawley, J., Meyerhoefer, C. (2012). The medical care costs of obesity: An instrumental variables approach. J Health Econ. Ello-Martin, J., H Ledikwe, J., Rolls, B. (2005). The Influence of Food Portion Size and Energy Density on Energy Intake: Implications for Weight Management. Foster GD, Wadden TA, Lagrotte CA, Vander Veur SS, Hesson LA, Homko CJ, et al.(2013) A randomized comparison of a commercially available portion-controlled weight-loss intervention with a diabetes self-management education program,Nutr Diabetes, 3:e63. Lagerros, Y., Rà ¶ssner, S. (2013). Obesity management: What brings success? Therap Adv Gastroenterol, 6(1), 77–88. Rolls, B. (2012). Dietary strategies for weight management. Nestlà © Nutrition Institute Workshop (2012), 73, 37-48. Rolls, B. (2014). What is the role of portion control in weight management? International Journal of Obesity (2005). Metz JA, Stern JS, Kris-Etherton P, Reusser ME, Morris CD, Hatton DC, et al.(2000) A randomized trial of improved weight loss with a prepared meal plan in overweight and obese patients: impact on cardiovascular risk reduction, Arch Intern Med, 160:2150–2158 National Institues of Health. (2012). Overweight and Obesity Statistics. Weight-control  Information Network. Reichard, A., D. Saunders, M., R. Saunders, R., Ptomey, L. (2014). A comparison of two weight management programs for adults with mobility impairments, Disability and Health Journal. Tieken SM, Leidy HJ, Stull AJ, Mattes RD, Schuster RA, Campbell WW. (2007). Effects of solid versus liquid meal-replacement products of similar energy content on hunger, satiety, and appetite-regulating hormones in older adults,Horm Metab Res, 39:389–394 Wing RR, Jeffery RW, Burton LR, Thorson C, Nissinoff KS, Baxter JE. (1996). Food provision vs structured meal plans in the behavioral treatment of obesity.Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord.;20:56–62 Wills J., Schmidt D., Pillo-Blocka F., Cairns G. (2009)Exploring global consumer attitudes toward nutrition information on food labels.Nutr Rev67(Suppl. 1): S102–S106Frenk, D. (2012, May 1). Obesity Consequences. Retrieved October 22, 2014, from http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/obesity-prevention-source/obesity-consequences/ Obesity and overweight. (2014, August 1). Retrieved October 22, 2014, from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/ Statistics Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada. (n.d.). Retrieved November 24, 2014, from http://www.heartandstroke.com/site/c.ikIQLcMWJtE/b.3483991/k.34A8/Statistics.htm

Education system exists mainly

Using material from item A and elsewhere, asses the view that the education system exists mainly to select and prepare young people for their future work roles BY ant-Kuz Using material from item A and elsewhere, asses the view that the education system exists mainly to select and prepare young people for their future work roles One way to select and prepare young people for their future work roles is by selecting and allocating pupils of education a role in society, as is mentioned in item A: â€Å"it also selects and allocates them to their future work roles† which means social nequality is legitimised because of the hierarchy of society – someone has to be on top and someone has to be bottom, as is streaming encouraged in the same manner. This idea is said to be stemmed from having a meritocratic society where everyone has an equality of opportunity presented to them in education and then later on, the workplace. This is how education serves its purpose to select you ng people for their future work roles.Another way that young people are prepared and selected for their future work roles is by education giving them the â€Å"specialised knowledge and kills they will need when they Join the workforce†, as mentioned in item A. This is done by providing a trained and qualified workforce in education by the introduction of vocational courses like modern apprenticeships which combine training and part- time attendance at college, meaning that they learn on a Job as well as learning in an education environment. New Right are the sociologists which focused a lot on marketization of education which focused on encouraging competition between schools so that education would improve, providing a better work force for society and in turn, better preparing young people for their future work roles.However, one of the key functions of education is social solidarity which means individual members of society must feel like they are part of a single communi ty of people; Durkheim argues that without it social life and cooperation would not be possible as everyone would want to achieve their own selfish desires. He argues that this is taught when we learn about History and Citizenship, which give us the idea of a shared community; also it does this by passing on society's culture and continues the value consensus, which is an agreement among society members on what values are important. School acts as a ‘society in miniature' as it prepares its pupils for life in a wider society, which requires social solidarity, as we have to cooperate with people who aren't family or friends, Just like in the workplace. We have to act accordingly to a set of impersonal rules that apply to all.In item A, it is mentioned that â€Å"the family cannot equip individuals with everything they need to become fully functioning members of a large-scale society' and as family is only the start of social solidarity, the feeling of belonging in a family gro up, education is needed to push that in a ider scale (as a typical nuclear family will not be bigger than 6 or so people). This is one key tunction ot education, and it exists to encourage social solidarity as well as other factors. Marxists would argue that education has different roles in society; Althusser said that there are two ways in which the bourgeoisie keep their power, one of which is the ideological state apparatus. ISAs are the way that the bourgeoisie control people's ideas, values and beliefs, and include religion, mass media and the education system. He argues that the education system is an important ISA because t reproduces class inequality by passing it on generation to generation, therefore failing to overthrow the bourgeoisie consistently.Another reason why it's important is that it legitimises class inequality by producing ideologies that cover the true effect by making workers accept that inequality is inevitable and that they earned their place in society, th erefore if they accept these ideas, they are less likely to challenge capitalism and how it's run. This is one way that Marxists argue that young pupils get allocated roles for their future work roles, and education is there for them to accept heir role and not argue against it. Another Marxist view on education is the myth of meritocracy which is the legitimation of class inequality, which is what a capitalist society is based on so there is always a risk that those at the bottom will feel their inequality is undeserved and unfair and therefore will rebel against it.Bowles and Gintis argue that education is the reason that this does not happen, as it legitimising class inequality by producing ideologies that Justify why this inequality is fair and inevitable. Bowles and Gintis describe education ‘as a giant myth-making machine' ike the myth of meritocracy, which means that it is untrue that everyone has an equal opportunity to achieve, that rewards are based on effort and so on. A reason for achieving high income is argued to be determined more from your family and class background rather than ability or educational achievement. This serves the higher classes as it makes it appear that they gained their roles in the workforce by an equal opportunity but in reality, that is not the case, they use this to trick working class pupils to accept inequality.This means that the education system exists not nly to allocate and train young people for their future work roles but also to accept the roles they are given and for the bourgeoisie to keep their power. In conclusion, the education system exists to provide all kinds of functions to society, as well as allocation roles for young people that they will continue to have in the workforce; they are also trained for that role so they have the skills necessary to do the Job. Also, according to Marxists, education also introduces certain values and beliefs into young peoples' minds so that they accept the inequalit y that happens in a capitalist society as an everyday inevitability.

Life, works, and political ideas of Dr. Jose Rizal Essay

Was Dr. Jose P. Rizal really the stubborn reformist who advocates peaceful and incremental social change as he is portrayed to be by popular culture and the dominant academic thought? Was he really the renaissance man the greatest ilustrado of the late19th century who was so obsessed with the values of education and enlightenment that he condemned any violence, even those that would have led to the freedom of the very people he sacrificed his life fighting for? Or was he something else, a character darker than what his brown skin suggests? Was he, in fact, a true revolutionary a Simoun, an Elias, aKa besang Tales? The purpose of this paper is to critically examine the historical and biographical studies conducted on the life, works, and political ideas of Dr. Jose Rizal. In particular, the paper aims to compare and contrast the two positions in the controversial reformist-revolutionary debate over the political thought of the writer-philosopher-ophthalmologist Filipino hero. The main thesis that this paper hopes to develop is that the debate is in itself flawed and that a new and more nuanced understanding of Rizal is necessary if we wish to see the hero through more academic lenses. Specifically, I argue here that the contemporary image of Rizal perhaps, even Rizal himself whether in academic literature or popular media is nothing more than a social construct and one that is socially and culturally connived, conspired, and manipulated. Rizal was, for example, used as a social construct by both the propagandist movement and the Katipunan, though in different respective ways, and deconstructing him is perhaps necessary for a more sobered understanding. Before we proceed, however, an important pre-examination is inevitable: Why is this critical analysis important and relevant within the social context of its writing? There can be many reasons and one that is particularly important to me is that any study of Dr.Jose Rizal is exhilarating and surprising. The man’s biography and the study of his mind can perhaps never be resolved, but the adventure towards their resolution gives us formerly unnoticed but equally rich insights as to what this man this First Filipino contributed or at least hoped to contribute to the germination of our nation and our nationalism. Nonetheless, the study is of course also relevant in a more societal sense. First, in the academic world, the story of Rizal as a  hero and thinker is a continuous stream of dialectical discourse that is forever in danger of changing its course. It is quite puzzling to realize that, despite a century of discussions, the discourse-debate remains fragile and the balance of academic power remains a balance. Certainly, the reformist arguments have established their ground in the nationalist geniuses of Teodoro Agoncillo and Renato Constantino and that their rhetoric prowess can seem daunting and intimidating, but the scale and depth of the dominance of the reformist position remains questionable. To what extent they have seeped into the Filipino consciousness, we can perhaps never resolutely determine but we do know that challenges to their gargantuan analyses continue to sprout. Thus, whatever contribution is a source of vitality for the discourse, even those that quite ironically challenge this very discourse. The latter is what this paper hopes to achieve. Second, 150 years after his birth in 1861, Rizal the man remains a mystery. In another project in celebration of Rizal’s birthday anniversary last June 19, 2011, I attempted to compile articles devoted to Rizal within the month of June and reached a number of more than 80 works. The literature is thus replete with mentions of and insights about Rizal and Rizal himself was an obsessive writer, giving historians and biographers no problem about first-hand documentation. However, the curse of studying a dead man is inevitable: We will never know Rizal fully well. Thus, in an attempt to critically analyze the studies on Rizal, I also wish to contribute a few insights here on the hero, who he was, and what his thoughts really were. Finally, whatever contribution to the discourse on Rizal is also a contribution to the Filipino national project. A century since Rizal’s death at Bagumabayan and the eruption of the Philippine Revolution, the Filipino nation remains incomplete and, much like the unfinished roads of Metro Manila, the way towards its completion is intermittently hampered by moral, political, and even academic-intellectual corruption. Rizal, through his imagination and dream of a Filipino people, is more or less the foundation of this national project yet this foundation is still misunderstood in fact, its understandings are still misunderstood! A more sober examination of his political thought is therefore crucial if we wish to move on towards the building of this nation. On the one hand, fo r more than a century, it has been a dominating belief in both Filipino literature and active progressive  circles that Dr. Jose Rizal, the Philippines most prominent political thinker and writer, was in writing and in action a genuine reformist. The depiction of Rizal as such is so systematized that it would seem a grave mistake to liken the hero to other more revolutionary figures such as the subversive political organizer Andres Bonifacio and the politico-military leader Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo. For one, we are taught in our schools and universities that Rizal was a part and product of the propagandist movement and not of the revolutionary movement. In fact, as if only to make the historical moment of the 1880s-1890s more theoretically digestible, we clearly delineate between the two movements in terms of aims, means, nature, and even chronology. Rizal was an intellectual novelist, a social critic, a believer in the power of the pen over the sword. He did not lead the revolutionary Kataas-taasang Kagalang-galang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan or the KKK. He repudiated the Philippine Revolution at the time, symbolized most dramatically by his refusal to endorse and join Bonifacio’s Katipunan when he was invited by Dr. Pio Valenzuela in Dapitan in 1896. Thus, it has been so ingrained in the Filipino psyche that Dr. Jose Rizal was, in truth, nothing more than areformist and nothing like a revolutionary. On the other hand, however, historiography and literary evidence would not as categorically declare Rizal as a reformist as suggested. Many academicians and Rizalist (Constantino, 1970) scholars point to different historical, biographical, and literary references to prove the point that Rizal did approve of the essence of armed struggle. For example, it can be argued that Rizal, being himself of the liberal democratic tradition, knew well of the merits of the 18th century French Revolution. The educated ilustrado was himself a fanatic of history and as such he knew that when there is no more choice and chance for peaceful change, the people must rise to the cause of their freedom and take arms against oppression and the perpetrators of the oppressive system. It is also no secret that Rizal had at the very least sympathies for revoluti onary thought, portrayed most definitively by the characters he used in his two well-celebrated novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo. From the plots of these fictional narratives, it is clear that Rizal believed in the validity of the reasons for revolting against the Spanish colonial and clerico-fascist  systems of his time. Illustratively, we see Elias and Kabesang Tales from Noli and Fili ,respectively, as genuinely oppressed personalities who were more or less, at least according to the internal narratives of the novels, justified in their cause of forwarding armed offensives against the exploitative machinations of the colonial regime. Further and in a more political sense, it makes one wonder how and why Rizal was used as an inspiration for the Katipunan if he really showed no sign of endorsing a, if not the, armed revolution against Spain. The question of why is relatively clearer: Dr. Jose Rizal was an inspiration for many indios natives of the archipelago at the time. It was quite convenient for the Katipunan to have used his name to capture the huge mass following Rizal has generated over the years. This could not have been done as effectively, however, if Rizal was sincerely, whether in writing or practice, against armed struggle. Thus, the rhetorical question is: How could the Katipunan secret society that mobilized the Philippine Revolution and thereafter established the first indigenous revolutionary government in the country  have used Rizal if he really were nothing more than a staunch reformist? The main representatives from the reformist camp come from, as said above, the nationalist historians led by Agoncillo and Constantino of the latter 20th century, the same historians who also advocate for the prominence of Andres Bonifacio over Rizal as the true revolutionary leader the noble plebeian (Agoncillo, 1956) who organized the nationalist-separatist movement of the Katipunan in the 1890s. Although Agoncillo in The Revolt of the Masses (1956) also postulates well that Dr. Jose Rizal was like the other ilustrados of his time merely a self-interested reformist whose gravest mistake was that he condemned the Philippine Revolution, the more compelling critique of Rizal’s political thought comes from Constantino’s Dissent and Counter-Consciousness (1970), in particular its ninth chapter entitled Veneration without Understanding. Constantino begins his critique of Rizal right away in his first two paragraphs, contrasting him with other principal heroes of other nations. The argument is difficult to challenge: According to Constantino, the main intriguing fact about Rizal as a hero is that, when seen in a matrix inclusive of other national heroes such as Washington of the United  States, Bolivar of Latin America, and Ho Chi Minh of Vietnam, Rizal did not lead the nationalist revolution of the Philippines our Revolution (Constantino, 1970). Constantino then mov es on to directly address the question of reformism and revolutionism and Rizal’s claimed rejection of the Philippine Revolution, writing: In no uncertain terms [Rizal] placed himself against Bonifacio andthose Filipinos who were fighting for the country’s liberty, pointing to Rizal’s December 15, 1896 manifesto as evidence (Constantino, 1970). After that, Constantino poses an important truth that, as he argues, has been ignored in mainstream academic thought the disjunctive contradiction between Rizal and the Revolution. According to the historian, this contradiction has led to the great dilemma that the Filipino people must face in order to make full sense of their national history; that the Filipino people must disown either the Revolution or their national hero, Dr. Jose Rizal, and not neither. He presents the choice starkly: Because the national hero condemned the Revolution that brought us our freedom from the colonial grip of imperial Spain, either the Revolution was wrong or Rizal was wrong. Constantino writes: The Philippine Revolution has always been overshadowed by the omnipresent figure and the towering reputation of Rizal. Because Rizal took no part in that Revolution and in fact repudiated it, the general regard of our Revolution is not as high as it otherwise would be. On the other hand, because we refuse to analyze the significance of his repudiation, our understanding of Rizal and of his role in our national development remains superficial. This is a disservice to the event, to the man, and to ourselves. (Constantino, Constantino solidifies his argument further by pointing to the Americans rational of endorsing and sponsoring Dr. Jose Rizal as the hero of the Filipino people. He cites Governor W. Cameron Forbes (1928, p. 55, as cited in Constantino, 1970) who exposes that the Americans favored Rizal’s symbolic status for the Filipinos precisely because he urged reform from within by publicity, by public education, and appeal to the public conscience. Thus, we see how even the Americans at the time knew and understood Rizal to be are formist, a non-separatist, and one who advocated nothing more radical than assimilation into Spain and peaceful social change for the improvement of the Filipino colonial condition. Finally, Constantino points out that such a reformist position was only to be expected of a man like Rizal whose status  and place in history assured him of a less radical, non-revolutionary, and more op timistic ideological position. Echoing loudly Agoncillo s analysis (Agoncillo, 1956) of the ilustrado position during the Philippine Revolution, to Constantino Dr. Jose Rizal was nothing more than the greatest of the propagandist-reformists the greatest, but still not ahead enough of his time to have agreed with and joined the Revolution. Nevertheless, the historian saves Rizal’s face by alluding to the power of structure over agency, claiming that Rizal should not be blamed nor disowned and that heroes should be seen not as movers but products of history. Constantino concludes with a grim but sensible depiction of Rizal: Today, we need new heroes who can help us solve our pressing problems. We cannot rely on Rizal alone The true hero is one with the masses; he does not exist above them The inarticulate are now making history while the articulate may be headed for historical anonymity, if not ignominy. When the goals of the people are finally achieved, Rizal, the first Filipino, will be negated by the true Filipino by whom he will be remembered as a great catalyzer in the metamorphosis of the decolonized indio. (Constantino, 1970; italics mine)Of course, Renato Constantino’s work and thesis did not remain unchallenged. An example of an audacious critique of Constantino’s critique comes from Floro Quibuyen who defended Rizal’s revolutionary aspirations through his 1996 dissertation entitled Imagining the Nation: Rizal, American Hegemony and Philippine Nationalism, the second chapter of which was devoted entirely to Dr. Jose Rizal. Quibuyen in his work aims to reveal by historiographic evidence and content analysis that Rizal’s bourgeois reformism, opposition to the Philippine Revolution, and assimilationism are all but historical myths perpetrated to tarnish the image of Rizal as the Revolution’s inspiration. His main thesis therefore is quite the opposite of Constantino’s: To Quibuyen (1996), Rizal was not are formist obsessed with peaceful change but a genuine revolutionary, even a supporter of armed struggle as a means for true social change. To prove his point, Quibuyen uses three historical documents written by Rizal, namely, his correspondences with his close friend Ferdinand Blumentritt, his letters to Marcelo Del Pilar, and his last poem now known by many as Mi Ultimo Adios. First, Quibuyen debunks the supposedly stubborn belief of Rizal in the prospects of peaceful change by referring to his January 26, 1887 letter  to Blumentritt. In his letter, Rizal says, A peaceful struggle shall always be a dream, for Spain will never learn the lesson of her SouthAmerican colonies. It is clear therefore that Rizal understood well that peaceful change, though ultimately the ideal means, cannot be the means with which the freedom of the Filipino people will be obtained. Second, by referring to Rizal’s letter to Del Pilar, Quibuyen (1996) proves that Rizal’s reforms were only tactics within the larger and more encompassing strategy of a revolution. In a letter to Del Pilar dated April 4, 1890, we see a sudden shift in the aspirations of Rizal, particularly those that concern his advocacy of Filipino representation in the Spanish Cortes. Quibuyen’s excerpt of the letter reads: I could not accept a seat [in the Cortes although my ancestors on my m other’s side were Congressmen Jose Florentino and Lorenzo Alberto. I am no longer interestedin those things. (Quibuyen, 1996)Finally, Quibuyen points to Rizal’s last untitled poem as the biggest proof of both Rizal’s revolutionary characteristic and the conspiracies associated with his portrayal as nothing more than a reformist. In particular, Quibuyen strongly criticizes the poem’s translation by Austin Coates, pointing most saliently at the lines that originally read, En campos se batalla, lunchando con delirio Otros te dan sus vidas sin dudas, sin pesar. These lines were translated by Coates as: Others are giving you their lives on fields of battle Fighting joyfully, without hesitation or thought for the consequence compare this translation with Nick Joaquin’s literally closer translation: On the field of battle, fighting with delirium, Others give you their lives without doubts, without gloom. The political implications of these two different translations are important and very much relevant to our aim: Whereas Coates portrays Rizal as thinking the revolutionary armed struggle was not careful and thoughtful of its consequences, Joaquin depicts Rizal a sin fact ameliorating and romanticizing violent revolution and sacrifices of human life for the country without doubts, without gloom. At the end of the chapter, Quibuyen (1996), in a final attempt to prove that Rizal was indeed a revolutionary not just in writing but in practice as well, conjures the Passion of Jesus Christ as Rizal’s inspiration of his own revolution. According to Quibuyen, to Rizal, fighting an armed struggle and self-martyrdom are both valid forms of revolutionary struggle, pointing to Jesus revolutionary moment when he  gave up his life for, supposedly, our redemption. As such, therefore, Rizal was revolutionary in his own, Jesus-like way. Which of the two scholars then makes more sense? As said above, I argue here that neither is correct and that, in fact, there is something terribly wrong with the entire discourse itself. I argue this for three reasons: that Constantino’s reformist position is flawed, that Quibuyen’s revolutionary position is as well just as flawed, and that reform andrevolution are, in the end, not mutually exclusive. First, it must be conceded that, despite Constantino’s genius in narrating the nationalist history of the Philippines, some flaws in his line of argumentation against Rizal’s revolutionary character must necessarily be pointed out. The first point to be made is tha t Constantino intentionally used American sponsorship of Dr. Jose Rizal’s heroism as a tool to prove that Rizal was genuinely an assimilationist and against anti-colonial revolution whereas he should not have. For one, this is not in any way fair. Sponsorship by the US colonial regime does not necessarily put Rizal on the side of reformism against revolution even as the Americans say so. What needs to be studied is not what the Americans thought of Rizal but what Rizal really believed in, explicable through the various documents and letters he wrote. In fact, it makes one wonder: If Constantino were really pushing for a nationalist understanding of Rizal as a political thinker, then why should the American shave a say in this process of understanding? A second point to be made is that Constantino focused too much on what Rizal did and neglected what Rizal wrote. What is important to Constantino is that Rizal never approved nor joined the Philippine Revolution; he was outside it, writing his life away. How are we then to judge a man’s thought if we really did not consider his theory and looked only at his praxis? It is also quite salient in Constantino’s work that there is no reference to Rizal’s writings o ther than his December1896 letter to Blumentritt. Again, the question of fairness can be raised: Was it fair to have judged Rizal’s political thought based only on a document that was written 15 days before his death? Do we judge a man’s lifelong journey with political theorizing according only to his last few words? Finally, it is clear that with Constantino’s non-negotiable class analysis of history, he really did not give Rizal a chance from the very beginning. Because Rizal was a bourgeois ilustrado of the 1880s-1890s, he was quite expectedly a traitor to the  revolution and, even if he were the greatest of the propagandists, he was a propagandist nonetheless and by extension merely a reformist. While the structural analysis is to be admired, where then is the power of agency? Clearly, not within Rizal’s grasp in Constantino’s world. Second, examining Quibuyen’s work, we see that the revolutionary position on Rizal’s political thought is just as flawed. To illustrate, whereas Co nstantino was too focused with what Rizal actually did or did not do, Quibuyen on the other hand was toofocused on what Rizal wrote. Content analysis is never enough to judge a man’s thought and role in history. For example, while Rizal indeed wrote that peaceful struggle is but a dream, he was in practice an advocate of peaceful means as he was chiefly a writer, a novelist. In fact, even if we were to employ content analysis strictly, this statement can be contrasted with what Rizal did with his revolutionary characters in Noli and Fili: They al lfailed. Kabesang Tales failed, Elias was killed, and Simoun died realizing his mistakes in conjuring a revolution that was largely borne out of self-interest. Another point is that Quibuyen’s strongest point is based only on Rizal’s last poem. If we were to base Rizal’s political thought on Mi Ultimo Adios, we would be no different from Andres Bonifacio who was hallucinated with a revolutionary Rizal approving of the Revolution he was leading .Again, I ask the question of whether it is fair or not to judge a man only by his last few words. Further, is it not also possible that Rizal merely sympathized with and did not necessarily approve of armed struggle as a valid form of fighting for freedom? Finally, and I hope there is in fact no more need of belaboring this point, I seriously think th at the comparison made by Quibuyen between Jose Rizal and Jesus of the Christians is nothing more than an exaggerated extension of Rizal’s martyrdom. In the ultimate end, the third and final point that must be made is that reform and revolution are not necessarily mutually exclusive. In a book entitled Requiem for Reformism: The Ideas of Rizal on Reform and Revolution, Bonifacio Gillego (1990) makes a crucial point that Rizal in fact favored both reform and revolution. The only difference afforded by Rizal between reformism and revolutionism is that he favored the former before the latter but nonetheless saw the latter as a necessary resolution if the former were to fail. This makes more sense, judging by the merits of the two positions  represented by Constantino and Quibuyen. As such, therefore, while Rizal strongly believed and hoped for a peaceful struggle a dream he also knew that, when push comes to shove and the Spanish regimeremains as stubborn and oppressive despite his more negotiating and reformist approach, a revolution will be necessary. The Philippine Revolution (called the Tagalog War by the Spanish),[citation needed] (Filipino: Himagsikang Pilipino) was an armed military conflict between the people of the Philippines and the Spanish colonial authorities. The Philippine Revolution began in August 1896, upon the discovery of the anti-colonial secret organization Katipunan by the Spanish authorities. The Katipunan, led by Andrà ©s Bonifacio, was a liberationist movement and shadow government spread throughout much of the islands whose goal was independence from Spain through armed revolt. In a mass gathering in Caloocan, the Katipunan leaders organized themselves into a revolutionary government, named the newly established government â€Å"Haring Bayang Katagalugan†, and openly declared a nationwide armed revolution.[2] Bonifacio called for a simultaneous coordinated attack on the capital city of Manila. This attack failed, but the surrounding provinces also rose up in revolt. In particular, rebels in Cavite led by Mariano Alvarez and Emilio Aguinaldo, from two different factions of Katipunan in the province, won early victories. A power struggle among the revolutionaries led to Bonifacio’s death in 1897, with command shifting to Aguinaldo who led his own revolutionary government. That year, a truce with the Spanish was reached called the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and Aguinaldo went to self-exile in Hong Kong. Hostilities, though reduced, never actually ceased.[3] On April 21, 1898, the United States began a naval blockade of Cuba, the first military action of the Spanish–American War. On May 1, the U.S. Navy’s Asiatic Squadron under Commodore George Dewey decisively defeated the Spanish navy in the Battle of Manila Bay, effectively seizing control of Manila. On May 19, Aguinaldo, unofficially allied with the United States, returned to the Philippines and resumed host ilities against the Spaniards. By June, the rebels had gained control over nearly all of the Philippines with the exception of Manila. On June 12, Aguinaldo issued the Philippine Declaration of Independence and the First Philippine Republic was established. Neither Spain nor the United  States recognized Philippine independence. Spanish rule in the islands officially ended with the Treaty of Paris of 1898 which ended the Spanish–American War. In it Spain ceded the Philippines and other territories to the United States.[3] There was an uneasy peace around Manila with the American forces controlling the city and the weaker Philippines forces surrounding them. On February 4, 1899, in the Battle of Manila fighting broke out between the Filipino and American forces, beginning the Philippine–American War. Aguinaldo immediately ordered, â€Å"[t]hat peace and friendly relations with the Americans be broken and that the latter be treated as enemies†.[4] In June 1899, the nascent First Philippine Republic formally declared war against the United States.[5][6] The Philippines would not become an interna tionally recognized, independent state until 1946.